Nationalism

Nationalism. In the political context, nationalism is related to the principle of self-determination which means that political life should be decided by a nation-state, a sovereign entity dominated by a single nation. Under the Westphalian state system created after 1648 following the Peace of Westphalia, a nation-state was defined by the recognition of state sovereignty, land constituting a state and the principle of non-intervention in the affairs of other states.

This essay will explore some of the advantages and disadvantages of nationalism.

In Defense of...

Nationalism can act as a force for uniting people. It asserts the national identity over other forms of identity such as religion, class or ethnicity. This can bring people together because shared norms are emphasised such as linguistic, cultural and historical factors which bind them to a specific territory. These sets of ideas were key under a nationalistic strain called 'Romantic' nationalism. However, nationalism as a concept can be imagined. Benedict Anderson, author of Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, believed that the nation was an imagined political community. He thought this because: "It is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion." Anderson wrote it was a community because "regardless of the actual inequality and exploitation that may prevail in each, the nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship". Therefore, it is this shared  idea of unity that makes nationalism an important concept. People often feel stronger when they are with friends who share similar views and values. This can be applied to a nation as people who share common collective views and values can feel strengthened as a community.

Nationalism can be applied practicality through principles or programmes. One main form of this is through a constitution. These are the fundamentals rules and laws that govern a nation and define the rights of its citizens. On the one side, these rules can either be written or codified in a single document. On the other, a variety of sources can make up an unwritten or uncodified  constitution. These sources include precedents, judicial rulings or statutes. 

The United States has a codified constitution that has been very important in defining the rights of citizens which also reinforces shared national values although this is often debated. For instance, the right to bear arms. On the one hand, a national value of resistance to tyranny is upheld as this right allows Americans to arm themselves against the government in a time of crisis, originating from how the thirteen colonies rose up against the British government in the War of American Independence (1775-1783). On the other hand, the violence stemming from the right to bear arms has included school massacres and attacks on minorities. This has shocked and repulsed many Americans which shows an aversion to guns being used for the wrong purpose. However, when this issue is brought up in Congress, the right to defend themselves is a classic counterargument. This displays a shared American value of security.  

The United Kingdom has an uncodified constitution. This means that the source for its rules are varied. This has meant it is harder to clearly define British shared values. The United Kingdom is unique though because it is made up of separate countries-England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. This means that the values for each country can differ which weakens the idea of a shared British value. However, one such common value is self-determination. British law has allowed for devolution. This is the transfer of administrative power from the Parliament in Westminster to assemblies in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sovereignty is an important concept in the UK because the UK has faced integration into a larger European entity, the European Union, which has led to debates over self-determination and hostility towards the idea of not all rules being decided by a British Parliament. The importance of sovereignty was highlighted when the UK voted to leave the European Union following a referendum in June 2016. British nationalism was one factor that contribute to the Leave victory as in parts of Britain, especially England, there were groups of people who wanted to leave the EU to preserve a British identity, which encouraged patriotism. One way in which this was expressed was belief in a sovereign British government and parliament independent of the European Union. 

Nationalism can also act as a force holding states together in which there are regional differences. Within some nation-states such as Spain, there are strong regional identities that counteract the national identity. These differences can mean that one region is at odds with the rest of the nation as the region may call for independence. This is the case with Catalonia calling for self-dependence from Spain. This shows that the degree to which nationalism can unify a collective people within a nation has limits. However, nationalism can also hold previously split states together by reinforcing shared language, culture and history. For instance, West and East Germany reunified in 1990 and has since remained as a single nation-state, and nationalism played a key role in German unification in the 1870s. It has seemed that the collective camaraderie that has developed through sharing a nationality has had a healing effect for people within Germany although the past is remembered, particularly the history that culminated in Germany being separated. Nevertheless, a shared remembrance of the past can act as a unifying factor.                 

Attack on...

As much as nationalism can unite regions or tie a minority with the rest of the population, nationalist tendencies can counteract regional or minority differences. These aspects mean a particular group will not identify with the rest of the nation. For example, Ireland was split on their ties to the UK as Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland had different views on a union with the other countries in the British Isles. In Iraq, the Kurds see themselves as different to the Shia and Sunni groups and have had dreams of an independent Kurdistan state. A strong regional identity can manifest itself into political action through calls for self-determination. This can manifest in a bloody process such as a civil war such as the Bosnian War following the disintegration of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. A peaceful process is still possible such as in the UK with devolution.   

Nationalism in its violent form is its most destructive. In addition to civil war, nationalism can lead to nation-states going to war with one another over national interests. For nations under attack, protecting the security, prosperity and resources of the state becomes vital. Whereas, invading nations often wage war for territory, wealth and empire. An example from history is the Napoleonic Wars, in which France under Napoleon sought to create a European empire. On the one hand, war can act as a nation-building exercise as all the peoples of a nation come together: to provide soldiers, work in arms manufacture, work in hospitals, donate to the war effort and work in hospitals. On the other hand, war can fragment states during a civil war through differing national interests that can accentuate regional dissimilarities, inflame tensions or set a majority against a minority. 

Whilst nationalism may unite a majority within a nation and lead to acceptance of a minority it can also lead the unified nation to close itself to foreigners. This could be because nationalism can develop one's pride in identifying as a national of their nation which may lead them to believe that only fellow nationals should be welcomed into their country. The main reason for this is not wanting to change. A nation may want to preserve its history, culture, society and language by not allowing foreigners to change or affect their way of life. This mindset has been adopted by some countries in historical examples. For instance, Spain under the Franco dictatorship during the 1960s-1970s was reluctant to open itself to the world due to foreign culture liberalising and changing the then conservative Spanish way of life. A modern example is the rise of right-wing parties across Europe during 2015-2016, of which many of these parties have strong anti-immigration stances, such as the Freedom Party in Austria. Therefore, national unity which leads to xenophobia can have long-term detrimental effects.    

Nationalism as a unifying force during crises can have negative consequences depending on the ideology influencing it. During a crisis-either social, political, economic or all three-nationalism which appeals to unifying the nation can lead to many supporters following nationalist parties and being drawn to leaders who promise to strengthen the nation. This can be positive as those leaders can often transform their country and avert the crisis. However, ideologies that have historically espoused nationalism are considered violent, extremist and have had destructive consequences. A historical example is the Nazi Party in Germany during the 1930s and 1940s. Hitler did attempt to solve the largely economic crisis in Germany which led to him becoming Chancellor in 1933 because he gained the support of the German people by promising to solve Germany's problems. However, Hitler did lead Germany into World War Two which ultimately resulted in defeat, ordered 'The Final Solution' which led to the deaths of six million Jewish men, women and children, and left Germany in ruins after the war. Therefore, nationalist fervour can mask a violent ideology in some cases and can be easily hiding xenophobic or prejudiced sentiment.